Zechariah 1:7-17

7 On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month, the month of Shebat, in the second year of Darius, the word of the LORD came to the prophet Zechariah son of Berechiah son of Iddo; and Zechariah said, 8 In the night I saw a man riding on a red horse! He was standing among the myrtle trees in the glen; and behind him were red, sorrel, and white horses. 9 Then I said, "What are these, my lord?" The angel who talked with me said to me, "I will show you what they are." 10 So the man who was standing among the myrtle trees answered, "They are those whom the LORD has sent to patrol the earth." 11 Then they spoke to the angel of the LORD who was standing among the myrtle trees, "We have patrolled the earth, and lo, the whole earth remains at peace." 12 Then the angel of the LORD said, "O LORD of hosts, how long will you withhold mercy from Jerusalem and the cities of Judah, with which you have been angry these seventy years?" 13 Then the LORD replied with gracious and comforting words to the angel who talked with me. 14 So the angel who talked with me said to me, Proclaim this message: Thus says the LORD of hosts; I am very jealous for Jerusalem and for Zion. 15 And I am extremely angry with the nations that are at ease; for while I was only a little angry, they made the disaster worse. 16 Therefore, thus says the LORD, I have returned to Jerusalem with compassion; my house shall be built in it, says the LORD of hosts, and the measuring line shall be stretched out over Jerusalem. 17 Proclaim further: Thus says the LORD of hosts: My cities shall again overflow with prosperity; the LORD will again comfort Zion and again choose Jerusalem. (Zechariah 1:;7-17, NRSV)

The following comments are based on earlier comments: On October 26, 2009 (Monday in the week of the Sunday closest to October 26, Year One), comments were repeated with editing and supplement from October 24, 2006 (Monday in the week of the Sunday closest to October 26, Year One). On December 17, 2007 (Monday in the week of the Third Sunday of Advent, Year One), comments were repeated from December 12, 2005 (Monday in the week of the Third Sunday of Advent, Year Two).

The Book of Zechariah begins by identifying him as “the prophet (xyb9n!, nāvî’ ) Zechariah son of Berechiah son of Iddo” (Zech. 1:1b). He was active as a contemporary of Haggai, as indicated by the dates given. The book opens by dating the coming of the “word of the LORD” to him “in the eighth month (Cheshvan), in the second year of Darius” (v. 1a), which Gregory Mobley explains as “mid-October to mid-November 520 BCE” (NOAB, 3^rd ed., augmented, 2007, on Zech. 1:1). The opening date in Haggai is about two months earlier, “in the second year of King Darius, in the sixth month [Elul, August-September], on the first day of the month” (Hag. 1:1), which Mobley says means “August 29, 520 BCE” by our calendar (ibid., on Hag. 1:1). Apart from the time of his prophetic work and the character of his prophecies we know little else about him as a person (cf. Mobley, ibid., in the Introduction to Zechariah). Today’s reading, Zechariah 1:7-17, is dated some four months later, “on the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month of Shebat (FbAw4, š ^ebāt, January-February), in the second year of Darius” (Zech. 1:7). That would be “February 15, 519 BCE,” according to W. Sibley Towner (HarperCollins Study Bible, rev. ed., 2006, on Zech. 1:7). Towner adds that “Shebat here and Chislev in 7:1 are the earliest uses in the Hebrew Bible of the Babylonian names of the months. Eventually these names were accepted in the Hebrew calendar” (ibid.). “Within the world of the present book,” says Ehud Ben Zvi, “this date seems to apply to 1:7-6:15, i.e., the entire series of eight visions. The date is just two months after the divine communications in Hag. 2:10, 20. Given the closeness of the dates, and the similarity of the basic themes and of the formula itself, it seems that the readers of the book are supposed to read these two texts as informing each other; see also Ezra 5:1; 6:14” (The Jewish Study Bible, 2004, on Zech. 1:7).

Scholars have analyzed Zechariah in two parts, and have suggested that the second part comes from another prophet than the Zechariah of the first part. After calling the Book of Zechariah “the longest and most obscure of the Minor Prophets,” Mobley adds:

Formally, it divides into two parts. The first, chs. 1-8, consists of a series of vision reports. Often referred to as ‘First Zechariah,’ it is closely tied to the preceding book of Haggai by the date formulas in 1:1; 1:7; and 7:1 (cf. Hag. 1:1; 2:1) and the references to Joshua, the high priest in Jerusalem, and Zerubbabel, its governor.

The second section, chs. 9-14, is a collection of sayings organized in two parts under the title ‘An Oracle’ (9:1; 12:1). ‘Second Zechariah,’ as it is sometimes called, is similar in form to the subsequent book, Malachi, which itself begins with the same title (Mal. 1:1). These oracles cite neither specific dates nor contemporary persons. Their concerns are for ‘that day,’ the Day of the LORD (e.g., 9:16; 12:3; 13:1; 14:1), and for unnamed persons such as a king who enters Jerusalem on a donkey (9:9) and a ‘shepherd’ stricken by a divine sword (13:7). (ibid., Introduction to Zechariah; cf. Towner, op. cit., Introduction to Zechariah)

Ben Zvi takes note of the view that the Book of Zechariah is the work of two authors, “the first eight chs . . . written before the rest–chs 9-14 are usually dated to either the late Persian or the Hellenistic period–and each part . . . written by a different author. This may well be the case, but the book of Zechariah in its present form does not ask its readers to approach it with this information in mind. To the contrary, the book associates all its texts with the prophet Zechariah mentioned in 1:1” (op. cit., Introduction to Zechariah).

Be that as it may, probably for reasons of content rather than theories of authorship, the Daily Office Lectionary presents readings from Zechariah in two separate series, one in Advent and another in the last week of Year Two (see the readings and comments in the Archives for Nov. 23-29, 2008). Today’s reading is the the first of seven in consecutive week-days (omitting next Sunday) from the Book of Zechariah (Monday in the week of the Third Sunday of Advent through Monday in the week of the Fourth Sunday of Advent, except for Sunday). Also, Zechariah 12:9-11,13:1,7-9 is one of the readings for Palm Sunday (e.g. Mar.16, 2008 [Year Two], and Apr. 5, 2009 [Year One]) because of the quotations related to Jesus’ Triumphal entry into Jerusalem (e.g. Mt. 21:4-5, citing Isa. 62:11 and Zech. 9:9, and Jn. 12:15, citing Zeph. 3:16; Zech 9:9).

Today’s reading from Zechariah presents the first of eight visions of Zechariah (Zech. 1:6-6:15). Mobley notes a pattern in the presentation of these visions: “(a) vision, (b) question about its meaning, (c) angelic interpretation” (op. cit., on Zech. 1:6-6:15). “In the night,” says Zechariah, “I saw (yt9yx9rA, rā’îthî )a man riding on a red horse! He was standing among the myrtle trees in the glen (hlAcum04, m ^etsulāh); and behind him were red, sorrel, and white horses” (1:8). In this series of eight vision reports, one form of the word hxArA (rā’āh, “to see”) or another is used to introduce each (1:8, 18 [Heb. 2:1]; 2:1 [Heb. 2:5]; 3:1; 4:2; 5:1, 5; 6:1). The term “vision” (NOyz0AH9, chizzāyôn) occurs only once in Zechariah, later in the book (13:4). Some of these visions are introduced by the phrase, “I lifted up my eyes and saw” (xr,xe5vA yn1yfe-tx, xW0Ax,vA, wā’eśśā’ ’eth-‘ênay wā’ēre’, 1:18 [Heb. 2:1]; 2:1 [Heb 2:5]) or a slight variation (5:1; 6:1). These “reports of eight visions,” says Ben Zvi, “are described in graphic, and highly symbolic detail, as are most apocalyptic visions. The ‘tour’ by an angelic being is also typical of apocalypse, as is the use of specific numbers. Unlike most later apocalyptic visions, however, the mediating angel is here anonymous” (op. cit., on Zech. 1:7-6:15). With reference to “in the night,” Towner says, “The uninterrupted sequence of vision reports in vv. 8-13 suggests that they all came from to Zechariah in a single night, perhaps in the form of dreams. Visions and dreams are, of course, media of divine revelation for Hebrew seers” (op. cit., on v. 8). “A man,” he adds, is “one of the angelic host (v. 11). Angelic interpreters provide vital explanations for several of the prophet’s visions, so that the weird, symbolic sights become conveyors of deeper understanding, i.e., word (v. 7)” (ibid.). “The glen,” says Mobley, is “a deep hollow; no ordinary place” (op. cit., on v. 8). “The red, sorrel and white colors of the horses,” says Towner, “might have symbolic values; however, they probably simply reflect the colors of horses known in the ancient Near East” (loc. cit.). According to Towner, “The red, sorrel and white colors of the horses might have symbolic values; however, they probably simply reflect the colors of horses known in the ancient Near East” (op. cit., on Zech. 1:8). However, this appears to be the beginning of prophetic motif that takes on a life of its own. The horses and their riders are mentioned again in verses 10 and 11). Later, in the eighth vision (6:1-8), four chariots appear, one with red horses, another with black horses (6:2), another with white horses, and another with dappled gray horses (v. 3). These are interpreted as “the four winds of heaven” who go out “after presenting themselves before the Lord of all the earth” (v. 5), and continue to patrol the earth in their respective spheres, the black horses to the north country, the white ones to the west, and the dappled ones to the south (v. 6). Within this context, says Mobley, “The North Country, Babylon, receives special attention” (op. cit., on Zech. 6:8).

In the Book of Revelation, this symbolism of colored horses finds its echo with the judgments of the first four seals (Rev. 6:1-8). According to Bruce M. Metzger, in John’s vision, “Come! [is] addressed successively to each of the four riders (Zech. 6:1-3) who accomplish God’s purposes” (NOAB, 2^nd ed., 1994, on Rev. 6:1-8). David E. Aune says these four riders in Revelation are “loosely based on Zech. 1:7-11; 6::1-8). John sees “a white horse! Its rider had a bow; a crown was given to him, and he came out conquering and to conquer” (Rev. 6:2). He also sees “another horse, bright red; its rider was permitted to take peace from the earth, so that people would slaughter one another; and he was given a great sword” (v. 4). The third seal reveals “a black horse! Its rider held a pair of scales in his hand” (v. 5). Famine is implied by the exorbitant prices of wheat and barley (v. 6). The fourth seal reveals a pale green horse whose “rider’s name was Death, and Hades followed with him,” bringing sword, famine and pestilence” (v. 8). But the initial vision in Zechariah, as noted above promises blessing and prosperity, not the famine, destruction and death of “the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse.” According to Mobley, “Zechariah speaks in the dialect of apocalyptic, with angelic interpreters and esoteric imagery. For his city, Zechariah had utopian expectations: the rebuilding of the Temple would inaugurate nothing short of the transformation of the world” (op. cit., in the Introduction to Zechariah). Mobley adds, “Yet despite the apocalyptic style, Zech. 1-8 also has a down-to-earth focus on the rebuilding of the Temple, practical concerns such as fasting (7:1-14), and a given historical moment” (ibid.).

Zechariah continues to describe his vision. “Then I said, ‘What are these, my lord?’ The angel ( j`x!l4m0aha, hammal’āk) who talked with me said to me, ‘I will show you what they are’ ” (v. 9). According to Ben Zvi, “The term angel here and elsewhere in the book (e.g., vv. 11, 12; 4:1; 5:10) may be translated as ‘messenger,’ in the sense of a divine messenger. Because there is reference to a man on horseback “standing among the myrtle trees” (v. 8, cf. v. 10), and the angel “who was standing among the myrtle trees,” who says “We have patrolled the earth, and lo, the whole earth remains at peace” (v. 11), one can ask whether the reference is to one person or two. Ben Zvi asks, “Is this messenger [or angel] the same man mentioned in these verses, as Ibn Ezra and others think? Or are these two beings, one a ‘man’ and the other a ‘messenger’? The text itself leaves the question open” (ibid.). As for the phrase, the whole earth remains at peace,” Mobley explains, “the nations have not yet received their judgment (cf. 1:15; Hag. 2:6)” (op. cit., on v. 11). Ben Zvi, following the New Jewish Publication Society translation (NJPS 1985, 1999), says, “Tranquility [tF,q!&wo, šōqāteth, ‘peace’ NRSV; participle, lit. ‘being at peace’] carries here a negative connotation, because it is associated with a status quo in which Judah and Jerusalem have not been restored. The implicit connotation is that their (full) restoration necessitates much turmoil and probably judgment against the nations (see v. 15 and cf. ch. 14).” He adds that “Some scholars associate this tranquility with the imperial peace achieved by Darius I in his second year, though the point is not made in the text. Darius plays no active role whatsoever in the book of Zechariah” (ibid., on v. 11).

We are told that “the angel of the LORD said, ‘O LORD of hosts, how long will you withhold mercy from Jerusalem and the cities of Judah, with which you have been angry these seventy years?’ ” Mobley explains the words , “Seventy years,” by saying, “the length of time since the destruction of Jerusalem was slightly less (586-519), but seventy years was a conventional term of punishment (Isa. 23:15-17, Jer. 25;11-12; 29:10)” (op. cit., on v. 12). According to Ben Zvi, “Seventy years is a clear reference to Jer. 25:11 (cf. 29:10), another clear indication that prophetic works were being studied at this period” (op. cit., on v. 12). Towner says that “seventy years . . . in Jer. 25:11; 29:10 it refers to the seventy-plus years in which the Neo-Babylonian Empire flourished (6:12-539 BCE); here it refers to the period of the devastation and exile of Jerusalem and Judah (587, the year of the destruction of the temple, to the approximate time of this oracle, 519 BCE).” (op. cit., on v. 12).

The prophet reports that “the LORD replied with gracious and comforting words to the angel who talked with me” (v. 13), and the angel in turn says to him, “Proclaim this message: Thus says the LORD of hosts; I am very jealous for Jerusalem and for Zion. And I am extremely angry with the nations that are at ease; for while I was only a little angry, they made the disaster worse” (vv. 14-15). This word sounds hopeful, and the angel’s message continues. “Therefore, thus says the LORD, I have returned to Jerusalem with compassion; my house shall be built in it, says the LORD of hosts, and the measuring line shall be stretched out over Jerusalem” (v. 16). Mobley interprets “the measuring line” as one of “the first signs of new construction; see 2:1-5; Jer. 32:38-39” (op. cit., on v. 16). “Proclaim further,” says the angel: “Thus says the LORD of hosts: My cities shall again overflow with prosperity; the LORD will again comfort Zion and again choose Jerusalem” (v. 17). Mobley says, “Compare with 8:3; Isa. 44:26; contrast with 2 Kings 23:27)” (ibid., on v. 17). In reference to “the LORD will . . . choose Jerusalem,” Towner says, “No other prophet ever claims that God ‘chose’ Jerusalem (see also 2:12; 3:2), but the theme is sound in Deut. 12:1-28; 1 Kings 8:44-48; 11:13” (op. cit. on v. 17).

Revelation 3:7-13

The Message to Philadelphia

7 "And to the angel of the church in Philadelphia write:

These are the words of the holy one, the true one,

who has the key of David,

who opens and no one will shut,

who shuts and no one opens:

8 "I know your works. Look, I have set before you an open door, which no one is able to shut. I know that you have but little power, and yet you have kept my word and have not denied my name. 9 I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but are lying--I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and they will learn that I have loved you. 10 Because you have kept my word of patient endurance, I will keep you from the hour of trial that is coming on the whole world to test the inhabitants of the earth. 11 I am coming soon; hold fast to what you have, so that no one may seize your crown. 12 If you conquer, I will make you a pillar in the temple of my God; you will never go out of it. I will write on you the name of my God, and the name of the city of my God, the new Jerusalem that comes down from my God out of heaven, and my own new name. 13 Let anyone who has an ear listen to what the Spirit is saying to the churches. (Revelation 3:7-13, NRSV)

On December 17, 2007 (Monday in the week of the Third Sunday of Advent, Year One), comments were repeated with editing and supplement from December 12, 2005 (Monday in the week of the Third Sunday of Advent, Year Two); they are repeated here with editing and supplement:

The sixth of the Lord’s seven messages through John to churches is addressed “to the angel of the church in Philadelphia” (Rev. 3:7a). Philadelphia was “an ancient city (modern Alashehir, Turkey) in the region of Lydia in western Asia Minor,” which, “because of its strategic location . . . served as a vital link in communication and trade between Sardis and Pergamum to the west and Laodicea and Hierapolis to the east. It was a center of agriculture, leather production, and textile industry” (Harper’s Bible Dictionary, rev. ed., 1996, s.v. Philadelphia).

As with the other letters, the wording of this letter is attributed to Christ:

These are the words of the holy one, the true one,

who has the key of David,

who opens and no one will shut,

who shuts and no one opens: (Rev. 3:7b, c, d, e, , NRSV)

The “key of David [is] a symbol of authority (Isa. 22:22),” says Bruce M. Metzger (NOAB, 3^rd ed., augmented, 2007, on Rev. 3:7; cf. Jean Pierre Ruiz, NOAB, 3^rd ed., augmented, 2007, on Rev. 3:7). This key allows Christ to open and shut doors. “I know your works. Look, I have set before you an open door, which no one is able to shut” (v. 8a). Next we learn that Christ has set before the Philadelphian church “an open door”: “I know your works. Look, I have set before you an open door, which no one is able to shut (v. 8a). According to David E. Aune, “Open door [is] a widely used Christian metaphor for opportunity to evangelize (Acts 14:27; 1 Cor. 16:9; 2 Cor. 2:12) and for access to salvation (Lk. 13:24)” (HarperCollins Study Bible, rev. ed., 2006, on Rev. 3:8). The church is commended for obedience and loyalty. “I know that you have but little power, and yet you have kept my word and have not denied my name” (v. 8b). Christ condemns opponents at Philadelphia. “I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but are lying–I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and they will learn that I have loved you” (v. 9; cf. 2:9). Of the words, “synagogue of Satan” Ruiz says it “reflects the tension between Jews and Jewish Christians.” He refers to John 8:44 and 1QH 2:22 (a Dead Sea Scroll), “which refers to apostate Jews as ‘a congregation of Belial’ ” (op. cit., on Rev. 2:9). But this addresses opponents, and for the church of Philadelphia itself there is no criticism, only praise. “Because you have kept my word of patient endurance,” says Christ, “I will keep you from the hour of trial that is coming on the whole world to test the inhabitants of the earth" (v. 10). According to Metzger, “The Philadelphian church, though feeble (v. 8), will be sustained during the coming persecution” (op. cit., on v. 10; cf. Ruiz, op. cit., on v. 10).

“I am coming soon,” says the Lord, and he exhorts the church of Philadelphia to “hold fast to what you have, so that no one may seize your crown” (v. 11; Ruiz compares 22:7, 12, 20, ibid., on v. 11). The Lord offers a conditional promise. “If you conquer, I will make you a pillar in the temple of my God; you will never go out of it. I will write on you the name of my God, and the name of the city of my God, the new Jerusalem that comes down from my God out of heaven, and my own new name” (v. 12). “The name of my God,” says Ruiz, marks “the one inscribed as God’s possession and as specially dedicated to God,” and he adds, “the name of the city of my God [signifies] citizenship in the new Jerusalem; see 21:2, 10” (ibid., on v. 12). And with the customary formula all are invited to meet the conditions and receive these blessings. “Let anyone who has an ear listen to what the Spirit is saying to the churches” (v. 13).

Matthew 24:15-31 (NRSV) (the left-hand column)

On July 11, 2008 (Friday in the week of the Sunday closest to July 6, Year Two), comments were repeated with editing and supplement from December 17, 2007 (Monday in the week of the Third Sunday of Advent, Year Two), when comments were repeated from July 14, 2006 (Friday in the week of the Sunday closest to July 6, Year Two), when they were combined with revision from July 9, 2004, in an email sent July 8, 2004, for July 8-9, and from December 12, 2005 (Monday in the week of the Third Sunday of Advent, Year Two). The comments are repeated again here with editing and supplement.

For recent comments on Mark 3:14-27, see the Archive for August 24, 2009 (Monday in the week of the Sunday closest to August 24, Year One). For recent comments on Luke 21:20-29, see the Archive for June 20, 2009 (Saturday in the week of the Sunday closest to June 15, Year One); for recent comments on Luke 17:20-37, see the Archive for June 3, 2009 (Wednesday in the week of the Sunday closest to June 1, Year One).

This is the second of four readings from Jesus’ eschatological discourse in Matthew. An outline of the discourse with references to parallel passages is found in the table in the separate file Eschatological Speech Outline. Parallel passages for today’s reading are found in the table above, which is also found in the separate file Eschatological Speech Middle.

We are presented with more of “the sign[s] of your coming and of the end of the age” (Mt. 24:3), in particular, “the desolating sacrilege.” In Mark’s version, Jesus says, “But when you see the desolating sacrilege (to; bdevlugma th:V ejrhmwsewV, to bdelygma tēs erēmōseōs) set up where it ought not to be (let the reader understand), then those in Judea must flee to the mountains” (Mk. 13:14). Mark’s phrase uses the definite article, referring to the phrase “a desolating sacrilege” (bdevlugma ejrhmwvsewV, bdelygma erēmōseōs) in 1 Maccabees 1:54, in the report of the atrocities inflicted upon Jerusalem by the Hellenistic Syrian Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who desecrated the Jerusalem temple in 167 B.C. (1 Macc. 1:41-64). “Now on the fifteenth day of Chislev, in the one hundred forty-fifth year [note b ‘167 B.C.’], they erected a desolating sacrilege (bdevlugma ejrhmwvsewV, bdelygma erēmōseōs) on the altar of burnt offering” (1 Macc. 1:54a NRSV). Daniel refers to this event in the form of prophecy, and the Septuagint translation uses the same phrase. “The prince who is to come [clearly Antiochus IV Epiphanes]” (Dan. 9:26) “shall make a strong covenant with many for one week, and for half of the week he shall make sacrifice and offering cease; and in their place shall be an abomination that desolates (Mm2wom4 Myc9UQ0w9, šiqqûtsîm m^ešōmēm), until the decreed end is poured out upon the desolation” (v. 27). The Septuagint translation of the phrase, “an abomination that desolates,” is bdevlugma tw:n ejrhmwvsewn (Dan. 9:27 LXX and Theodotion; cf. Dan. 11:31 and 12:11 in Hebrew, LXX and Theodotion). Matthew’s version of Jesus’ saying makes the reference to Daniel explicit and makes it clear that the “desolating sacrilege” is to be placed in the temple. “So when you see the desolating sacrilege standing in the holy place [i.e. the temple sanctuary], as was spoken of by the prophet Daniel (let the reader understand), then those in Judea must flee to the mountains” (Mt. 24:15-16; cf. Dan. 9:27; 11:31; 12:11).

Luke’s Gospel has no reference to the “desolating sacriledge. In the parallel to Mark 13:14 and Matthew 24:15, Luke does refer to desolation, but it is the effect when Jerusalem is “surrounded by armies”: “When you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that its desolation (hJ ejrhvmwsiV aujth:V, hē erēmōsis autēs) has come near” (Lk. 21:20). As noted earlier (cf. the Archive for June 20, 2009), we may assume that Mark’s Gospel was one of Luke’s sources. Luke has added the reference to “Jerusalem surrounded by armies”–anticipated, of course, by Jesus, but for Luke, at the time of his writing, already history. He is not inventing sayings for Jesus, but rather, understanding what Jesus said in the light of subsequent events.

The desolating sacrilege (Mt. 24:14; Mk. 13:13:14b), which has its prototype in the actions of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, noted above, and which led to the Maccabean revolt and eventual independence and sovereignty for Judea for a few decades, has been related by some to later events. The very presence of the Roman armies in Jerusalem, with eagle standards, not to mention their role as foreign dominators, would call to mind the period of Syrian oppression and the Maccabean war. Their presence would be provocative. One “near miss,” we might call it, was Emperor Caligula’s (Caius’) attempt to erect statues in the temple in Jerusalem. Lambert Dolphin tells this story (http://www.templemount.org/destruct2.html#anchor596423, accessed again December 14, 2009; you may need to copy and paste the URL):

Shortly after the death and resurrection of Jesus, the mad Emperor Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus - nicknamed Caligula ("little boots") - attempted to desecrate the Temple. Everywhere else in the Roman empire subjugated peoples had been forced to conform to the cult of Rome and acknowledge not only Caesar as Lord but also fall into line by adopting the Roman pantheon of gods. The Jews had been left alone and it was time they began to conform. Caligula gave an order to set up his statue in the Holy of Holies in the Temple:

Now Caius Caesar did so grossly abuse the fortune he had arrived at, as to take himself to be a god, and to desire to be so called also, and to cut off those of the greatest nobility out of his country. He also extended his impiety as far as the Jews. Accordingly he sent Petronius with an army to Jerusalem to place his statues in the temple, and commanded him that, in case the Jews would not admit of them, he should slay those that opposed it, and carry all the rest into captivity. (Flavius Josephus, Antiquities, 15, 403 ff.)

The Roman writer Tacitus adds that Caius commanded the Jews to place his effigies in the Temple. Josephus records that the Jews pleaded with Petronius not to do this. The Jews in their stubborn monotheism were willing to sacrifice their whole nation before they would allow the Temple to be defiled. Petronius marveled at their courage and ceased with the process so confrontation was temporarily averted. An enraged Caligula commanded that Petronius be put to death. Josephus records that Caligula himself died soon thereafter and due to bad weather at sea, the letter ordering Petronius' death arrived three weeks after the news arrived of Caligula's death. Petronius was not executed and the Temple was spared this particular abomination.

As Josephus tells the story (Antiquities 19/261-309):

Hereupon Caius, taking it very heinously that he should be thus despised by the Jews alone, sent Petronius to be president of Syria, and successor in the government to Vitellius, and gave him order to make an invasion into Judea, with a great body of troops; and if they would admit of his statue willingly, to erect it in the temple of God; but if they were obstinate, to conquer them by war, and then to do it. (Antiquities, 261, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D18%3Asection%3D224, accessed December 14, 2009)

Petronius at first attempted to carry out Caesar’s order, but he met with serious objections by the Jews. So he procrastinated, and after several further exchanges, though Caligula (Caius) sent a further inquiry, he was prevented by the death of the Emperor from the necessity of following the order.

This was the epistle which Caius wrote to. Petronius; but Petronius did not receive it while Caius was alive, that ship which carried it sailing so slow, that other letters came to Petronius before this, by which he understood that Caius was dead; for God would not forget the dangers Petronius had undertaken on account of the Jews, and of his own honor. But when he had taken Caius away, out of his indignation of what he had so insolently attempted in assuming to himself divine worship, both Rome and all that dominion conspired with Petronius, especially those that were of the senatorian order, to give Caius his due reward, because he had been unmercifully severe to them; for he died not long after he had written to Petronius that epistle which threatened him with death. (Ibid., 305)

Philo also tells this story, and both he and Josephus say that it was fortunate that Caligula died before the order was carried out.

All of the Synoptic Gospels continue Jesus’ eschatological discourse with the warning that “those in Judea must flee to the mountains” (Mt. 24:16; cf. Mk. 13:14b; Lk. 21:21a). Luke adds that “those inside the city”–now surrounded by armies (v. 20)–“must leave it, and those out in the country must not enter it” (v 21b, c). In view of the danger “the one on the housetop must not go down to take what is in the house” (Mt. 24:17; cf. Mk. 13:15). For the same reason, “the one in the field must not turn back to get a coat” (Mt. 24:18; cf. Mk. 13:16). Although Luke omits some of these details, he describes the time as “days of vengeance, as a fulfillment of all that is written” (Lk. 21:22). “Woe to those who are pregnant,” says Jesus, “and to those who are nursing infants in those days!” (Mt. 24:19; Mk. 13:17; Lk. 20:23a). Where Mark presents Jesus’ simple warning to “pray that it [i.e. this ‘flight,’ as Matthew spells out] not be in winter” (Mk. 13:18), Matthew elaborates, as noted, and adds, reflecting his sensitivity to Jewish issues, to pray that it may not “be on a sabbath” (Mt. 24:20). Winter and the sabbath, says J. Andrew Overman, would be times “when food could be scarce or unavailable” (NOAB, 3^rd ed., augmented, 2007, on Mt. 24:20). Each of the Synoptic Gospels records Jesus warning about times of great suffering. “For at that time,” says Jesus, according to Matthew, “there will be great suffering, such as has not been from the beginning of the world until now, no, and never will be” (Mt. 24:21; cf. Mk. 13:19). “And if those days had not been cut short,” adds Jesus, “no one would be saved, but for the sake of the elect those days will be cut short” (Mt. 24:22); Mark’s version is similar but more explicit about the Lord’s action–implied by the passive voice in Matthew. “And if the Lord had not cut short those days, no one would be saved; but for the sake of the elect, whom he chose, he has cut short those days” (Mk. 13:20). Luke briefly presents the warning about “great distress on the earth and wrath against the people” (Lk. 21:23b), but adds details that reflect the Roman conquest of Jerusalem, saying, “they will fall by the edge of the sword and be taken away as captives among all nations; and Jerusalem will be trampled on by the Gentiles, until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled” (Lk. 21:24).

At this point Jesus warns about false messiahs and false prophets. “Then if anyone says to you, ‘Look! Here is the Messiah!’ or ‘There he is!–do not believe it. For false messiahs and false prophets will appear and produce great signs and omens, to lead astray, if possible, even the elect” (Mt. 24:23-24; cf. Mk. 13:21-22). “Take note,” he adds, “I have told you beforehand” (Mt. 24:25). Mark’s version of this is similar: “But be alert; I have already told you everything” (Mk. 13:23). As for false Messiahs and false prophets among the Jews of Jesus’ day, several are described by Josephus. Some of these stories are retold by Richard Horsley in Bandits, Prophets and Messiahs (1988). In a general sense there have been numerous desolating sacrileges throughout history and in our own time

In another context, Luke has Jesus warn about misguided expectations as to the coming of the “Son of Man.” Having been asked about the coming of the kingdom of God (Lk. 17:20), and in reference to “the days of the Son of Man” (v. 22), Jesus says to his disciples, “They will say to you, ‘Look there!’ or ‘Look here!’ Do not go, do not set off in pursuit. For as the lightning flashes and lights up the sky from one side to the other, so will the Son of Man be in his day” (Lk.17:23-24; cf. Mt. 24:26-27).

And the discourse moves on to the coming of the Son of Man. The proverbial saying, “Wherever (‘Where’ Lk) the corpse is, there the vultures will gather” (Mt. 24:28; Lk. 17:37b), is likely a secular proverb that Jesus used to make a point about the signs, true or false, of the coming of the Son of Man. One could imagine its use in various contexts. Jesus suggests signs in the heavens that will precede the coming of the Son of Man. “But in those days,” says Jesus, according to Mark, “after that suffering, the sun will be darkened, / and the moon will not give its light, / and the stars will be falling from heaven, / and the powers in the heavens will be shaken” (Mk. 13:24-25; cf. Mt. 24:29). Luke’s version is similar, but adds “distress among nations confused by the roaring of the sea and the waves” (Lk. 21:25). And Luke adds that “people will faint from fear and foreboding of what is coming upon the world, for the powers of the heavens will be shaken” (v. 26). And the three Synoptic Gospels all describe the coming of the Son of Man–the parousia, as we call it. “Then the sign of the Son of Man will appear in heaven, and then all the tribes of the earth will mourn, and they will see ‘the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven’ with power and great glory. And he will send out his angels with a loud trumpet call, and they will gather his elect from the four winds, from one end of heaven to the other (Mt. 24:30-31; cf. Mk. 13:26-27; Lk. 21:27). Luke adds a word of assurance. “Now when these things begin to take place, stand up and raise your heads, because your redemption is drawing near” (Lk. 21:28). Every day, it seems, the news comes of abominable atrocities, but we “wait for the promise of his coming” (2 Pet. 3:4). But the main point remains that we do not know the time of the Son of Man’s coming (Mt. 24:36; Mk. 13:32), and we are well advised to be ready at all times.

Ronald D. Worden, Ph.D.

rdworden@hgst.edu

deanworden@comcast.net